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Current trends in the treatment of venous thoracic outlet syndrome: a comprehensive review

N Tsekouras & AJ Comerota

The term ‘thoracic outlet syndrome’ (TOS) represents a variety of disorders caused by the compression of nerves, arteries and veins as they exit the thorax and enter the axilla. Three basic syndromes are reported according to the involved anatomic structures: neurogenic, venous and arterial. Occasionally, the neurological and arterial syndromes may coexist in the same patient. However, for ease of understanding, each of these syndromes should be conceptualized as distinct clinical entities for they have characteristic differences in clinical presentation, diagnostic workup and treatment. Venous TOS, which is the topic of this review, can be further divided into two categories, the thrombotic and the less common nonthrombotic venous TOS.